Art Created by the Catholic Church in Response to Protestantism

Hans Holbein the Younger's Noli me tangere a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation menses. It is small, and more often than not naturalistic in style, avoiding iconic elements like the halo, which is barely discernible.

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic art, and very often destroyed every bit much of it equally it could reach. A new artistic tradition adult, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist fine art produced during the Loftier Renaissance. The Lutheran churches, every bit they developed, accustomed a limited role for larger works of art in churches,^{[ane] [2]} and also encouraged prints and volume illustrations. Calvinists remained steadfastly opposed to art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though generally fully accepting secular images in their homes.

In turn, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of fine art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more than stringent mode of Catholic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, just the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of fine art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting and still life.

Art and the Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a religious move that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity betwixt Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a North-Southward split in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic."^[three]

The Reformation produced ii principal branches of Protestantism; ane was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the Reformed Churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew iii main sects, the Lutheran tradition, also as the Continental Reformed and Anglican traditions, the latter two post-obit the Reformed (Calvinist) religion.^[iv] Lutherans and Reformed Christians had different views regarding religious imagery.^{[v] [ii]}

Martin Luther in Germany allowed and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church building as a continuation of the "ancient, apostolic church".^[2] The utilize of images was ane of the issues where Luther strongly opposed the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces similar the Concluding Supper by the younger Cranach were produced in Germany, especially by Luther's friend Lucas Cranach, to replace Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional depiction of Jesus. Equally such, "Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior."^[ane] Lutherans connected the use of the crucifix as it highlighted their loftier view of the Theology of the Cross.^{[2] [6]} Stories grew upwardly of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, by divine intervention.^[7] Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."^[eight]

On the other mitt, there was a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery. This began very early in the Reformation, when students in Erfurt destroyed a wooden altar in the Franciscan friary in December 1521.^[9] Later, Reformed Christianity showed consistent hostility to religious images, every bit idolatry, peculiarly sculpture and large paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more acceptable, because they were smaller and more than individual. Reformed leaders, especially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the control of their followers, and regarded the groovy majority of religious images every bit idolatrous.^[10] Early Calvinists were even suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (presently to be i of the Marian exiles) tried to take portraits of six divines sent to him from Zurich, and felt it necessary to explain his motives in a alphabetic character of 1550: "this is not done ....with a view to making idols of you; they are desired for the reasons which I have mentioned, and not for the sake of award or veneration".^[11]

The destruction was often extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable concrete manifestation, often imposed from above, that could not be ignored. It was only for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic coup, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility between Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for it was generally at the level of the metropolis, town or hamlet that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.

Only reformers oft felt impelled past potent personal convictions, as shown by the example of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to advise. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a promise to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. After she turned Protestant, and feeling she must reverse what she at present saw every bit a wrong action, she went to the convent church building, removed the statue and burnt it. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a modest fine without complaint, but flatly refused to pay the additional sum the court ordered exist paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli'due south letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did not supersede the statue, but the eventual outcome is unknown.^[12] By the end of his life, later iconoclastic shows of force became a feature of the early phases of the French Wars of Religion, fifty-fifty Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had become counter-productive.^[13]

Daniel Hisgen'due south paintings are mostly cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Cosmos (left) to the Annunciation can be seen.

Subjects prominent in Cosmic fine art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such as Mary and saints were given much less emphasis or disapproved of in Protestant theology. As a result, in much of northern Europe, the Church nearly ceased to committee figurative art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the hands of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism even objected to not-religious funerary art, such as the heraldry and effigies dearest of the Renaissance rich.^[14] Where there was religious art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, especially equally volume illustrations and prints, and, later, moralistic depictions of modern life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted allegorical scenes setting out Lutheran doctrines, in particular a series on Police and Gospel. Daniel Hisgen, a German Rococo painter of the 18th century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were likewise often painted with similar scenes to those in Catholic churches.

Lutherans strongly dedicated their existing sacred art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the second half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "Second Reformation" of nigh 1560–1619.^{[two] [fifteen]} Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "Y'all black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; nosotros are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return".^[2] The Beeldenstorm, a large and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob destruction of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summer of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.^[16] This campaign of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.^[17] Similar patterns to the German actions, just with the addition of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national government, were seen in Anglican England in the English Ceremonious State of war and English Commonwealth in the next century, when more impairment was done to fine art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation.

A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and vino into the body and claret of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the one-time as a sacramental union and the latter every bit a pneumatic presence.^[xviii] Protestant churches that were non participating in the iconoclasm frequently selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Terminal Supper. This helped the worshippers to call back their theology behind the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which often chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the cede of Christ and the sacrifice of the Mass were one and the same, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass-produced and widely available to the public at depression cost. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, as the Catholic Church had been doing since the early 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious instruction was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a directly link between the worshippers and the divine.

In that location was also a trigger-happy propaganda war fought partly with popular prints by both sides; these were ofttimes highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were pop, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such equally the Last Supper.

Genre and landscape [edit]

Later on the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a witting endeavour to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in book illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation artists, especially Cranach the Elder and Younger and Holbein, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Catholic saints. Afterwards Protestant taste turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. There was also a reaction against big images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of loftier style at the time. This brought most a style that was more than directly related to accurately portraying the nowadays times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully flower in the 17th century began during this catamenia.

Peter Bruegel (1525–1569) of Flanders is the great genre painter of his time, who worked for both Catholic and Protestant patrons. In nearly of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, most space is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel's Wedding Feast, portrays a Flemish-peasant hymeneals dinner in a barn, which makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another smashing painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489–1533), is known mostly for his engravings, such as The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.

Bruegel was also an achieved landscape painter. Oftentimes Bruegel painted agricultural landscapes, such every bit Summertime from his famous set of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the country, with a few workers taking a lunch intermission nether a nearby tree. This type of landscape painting, obviously void of religious or classical connotations, gave nascence to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such equally Jacob van Ruisdael.

With the slap-up development of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and impress publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing house owned by Hieronymus Cock. The 4 Winds provided the public with nigh a thousand etchings and engravings over ii decades. Between 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Cock with almost 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.

The courtly manner of Northern Mannerism in the 2nd one-half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the desire of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and France to find a mode of art that could appeal to members of the courtly elite on both sides of the religious divide.^[19] Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic effect of encouraging classical mythology in fine art, since though they might disapprove, even the most stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological fine art really represented idolatry.

Council of Trent [edit]

During the Reformation a smashing divergence arose between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the north regarding the content and style of art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the Council of Trent to plant some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious fine art in Catholic countries (particularly Italy) had lost its focus on religious subject-matter, and became too interested in material things and decorative qualities. The council came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for what is known every bit the Counter-Reformation.

Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the fine art of Venice, adult into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated manner, striving for consequence, that concerned many churchman equally lacking entreatment for the mass of the population. Church pressure level to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the concluding session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to have bully impact on the evolution of Catholic art. Previous Cosmic Church building councils had rarely felt the need to pronounce on these matters, different Orthodox ones which take often ruled on specific types of images.

Statements are often made forth the lines of "The decrees of the Council of Trent stipulated that art was to be direct and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint'south life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety",^[twenty] merely in fact the bodily decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very short passage dealing with art came merely in the final session in 1563, every bit a terminal minute and little-discussed addition, based on a French draft. The prescript confirmed the traditional doctrine that images just represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the epitome, and further instructed that:

...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not exist painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to animalism... there be nothing seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly arranged, nothing that is profane, aught indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may be the more than faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no 1 be allowed to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in any place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that prototype accept been approved of by the bishop ...^[21]

The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, equally did "unbecomingly or confusedly bundled" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Fundamental Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, oft going into infinitesimal detail on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in result prohibited, equally was any inclusion of classical heathen elements in religious art, and most all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus.^[22] According to the great medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval art".^[23]

Art and the Counter-Reformation [edit]

While Calvinists largely removed public fine art from faith and Reformed societies moved towards more "secular" forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural beauty of His cosmos and by depicting people who were created in His image",^[24] Counter-Reformation Catholic church continued to encourage religious art, simply insisted information technology was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.^[25] Likewise, "Lutheran places of worship contain images and sculptures not only of Christ but also of biblical and occasionally of other saints as well equally prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained drinking glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern compages, carved or otherwise embellished chantry pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere."^[26] The main difference between Lutheran and Roman Catholic places of worship was the presence of the tabernacle in the latter.^[26]

Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more austere style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from almost 1550, too directly with the decrees of Trent, equally it pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come to be conspicuous in Roman culture".^[27]

Scipione Pulzone's (1550–1598) painting of the Lamentation which was commissioned for the Church of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a articulate sit-in of what the holy quango was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the prototype of the platonic man.

Ten years after the Council of Trent'southward decree Paolo Veronese was summoned by the Inquisition to explain why his Last Supper, a huge canvass for the refectory of a monastery, independent, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well every bit extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast.^[28] Veronese was told that he must change his indecorous painting within a 3-month menstruum – in fact he only changed the title to The Feast in the House of Levi, notwithstanding an episode from the Gospels, merely a less doctrinally central one, and no more was said.^[29] No incertitude any Protestant authorities would have been every bit disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting being placed within the painting) was also accelerated; these become rare after the Council.

Repentance of Peter past El Greco, 1580–1586.

Farther waves of "Counter-Reformation art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were once more brought under Cosmic rule. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a boom fourth dimension for artists. The all-time known example is the new Spanish Netherlands (essentially modern Belgium), which had been the centre of Protestantism in the netherlands but became (initially) exclusively Cosmic after the Spanish drove the Protestants to the north, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was one of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his all-time known works re-filling the empty churches.^[xxx] Several cities in France in the French wars of religion and in Germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Xxx Years War saw similar bursts of restocking.

The rather farthermost pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should only show New Testament scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in particular the Jesuits connected to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), but nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increment.^[31] Altarpieces became larger and more like shooting fish in a barrel to make out from a distance, and the large painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern belatedly medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.^[32]

Some subjects were given increased prominence to reflect Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Denial of Peter, was non oftentimes seen before the Counter-Reformation, when it became popular equally an assertion of the sacrament of Confession confronting Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book by the Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, as a one-half-length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped every bit at right, and sometimes "the erect" in the groundwork; it was often coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, another exemplar from Bellarmine's book.^[33]

Equally the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church building felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome once again began to assert its universality to other nations around the world. The religious order of the Jesuits or the Society of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, India and east asia and used the arts as an constructive means of articulating their message of the Catholic Church building'south authorization over the Christian organized religion. The Jesuits' impact was so profound during their missions of the time that today very similar styles of fine art from the Counter-Reformation period in Catholic Churches are institute all over the world.

Despite the differences in approaches to religious fine art, stylistic developments passed most equally quickly across religious divisions equally within the two "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer touch with the Netherlands than with Spain.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Spicer, Andrew (v Dec 2016). Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 237. ISBN9781351921169. Every bit it adult in north-eastern Frg, Lutheran worship became a circuitous ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is axiomatic from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Effigy five.5.).
2. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593. Lutherans connected to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Frg to this solar day one finds more aboriginal Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Frg and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and compages survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the utilize of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You lot blackness Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; nosotros are going to blast you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art connected to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's theologia crucis. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Ordinarily unadorned and somewhat defective in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; in that location are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also by and large absent.
3. ^ The Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Historicist and Causes of the Reformation. New Advent.
4. ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (xvi December 2011). Historical Dictionary of Calvinism. Scarecrow Printing. p. 1. ISBN9780810872240. While Germany and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church building and land, France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Hungary, what is at present the Czech Republic, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying ways, on the model Calvin set up in Geneva. Although England pursued the Reformation ideal in its ain way, leading to the formation of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the 30-9 Articles of the Church of England were heavily influenced by Calvinism.
5. ^ Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000). Holbein and the Reformation of Fine art. University of California, Berkeley.
6. ^ Marquardt, Janet T.; Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Alyce A. (14 January 2009). Medieval Art and Architecture later on the Middle Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9781443803984. In fact, Lutherans ofttimes justified their continued utilise of medieval crucifixes with the aforementioned arguments employed since the Middle Ages, equally is evident from the example of the chantry of the Holy Cantankerous in the Cistercian church of Doberan.
7. ^ Michalski, 89
8. ^ Dixon, C. Scott (9 March 2012). Contesting the Reformation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN9781118272305. Co-ordinate to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran fine art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
9. ^ Noble, xix, note 12
10. ^ Institutes, 1:eleven, section 7 on crosses
11. ^ Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, p. 193, 1990, Yale, ISBN 0300046758; Hales was the brother of John Hales (died 1572)
12. ^ Michalski, 87-88
13. ^ Michalski, 73-74
14. ^ Michalski, 72-73
15. ^ Michalski, 84. Google books
16. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (1 January 2010). Gardner'south Art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art. Cengage Learning. p. 254. ISBN9781424069224. In an episode known as the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in kingdom of the netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-drinking glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived equally idolatrous.
17. ^ Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009). The Reformation. Oxford University Press. p. 114. ISBN9780191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist '2d Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant prototype-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make common cause.
18. ^ Mattox, Mickey L.; Roeber, A. M. (27 February 2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Chat. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN9780802866943. In this "sacramental wedlock," Lutherans taught, the trunk and blood of Christ are then truly united to the breadstuff and wine of the Holy Communion that the 2 may exist identified. They are at the same time trunk and blood, bread and vino. This divine nutrient is given, more than-over, not but for the strengthening of faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very torso and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means past which the matrimony of organized religion, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate union with Christ, in other words, leads straight to the almost intimate communion in his holy body and blood.
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Strong, Pt. 2, Chapter 3 on France, particularly pp. 98-101, 112-113.
20. ^ Art in Renaissance Italy. Paoletti, John T., and Gary Grand. Radke. Pg. 514.
21. ^ Text of the 25th decree of the Quango of Trent
22. ^ Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660, chapter VIII, especially pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-19-881050-4
23. ^ The death of Medieval Art Extract from book by Émile Mâle
24. ^ Art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nosotro, Rit.
25. ^ The Art of the Counter Reformation. Metropolitan Museum of Fine art.
26. ^ ^{a b} Lamport, Marking A. (31 Baronial 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593.
27. ^ (Sidney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
28. ^ "Transcript of Veronese's testimony". Archived from the original on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-26 .
29. ^ David Rostand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2nd ed 1997, Cambridge Upward ISBN 0-521-56568-5
30. ^ (David) Freedberg, throughout
31. ^ (David) Freedberg, 139-140
32. ^ (David) Freedberg, 141
33. ^ Hall, pp. 10 and 315

References [edit]

• David Freedberg, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to The Age of Rubens, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio, online PDF
• Freedburg, Sidney J. Painting in Italy, 1500–1600, 3rd edn. 1993, Yale, ISBN 0300055870
• James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-4
• Michalski, Sergiusz. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Epitome Question in Western and Eastern Europe, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-41425-X, 9780203414255 Google Books
• Noble, Bonnie (2009). Lucas Cranach the Elderberry: Art and Devotion of the German language Reformation. University Press of America. ISBN978-0-7618-4337-5.
• Roy Strong; Fine art and Power; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650, 1984, The Boydell Press;ISBN 0-85115-200-seven
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Credo at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-vi

Farther reading [edit]

• Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Magazine 141 (1999).
• Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Fine art." 5 Feb. 2007 [i].
• Christensen, Carl C. "Fine art and the Reformation in Germany." The Sixteenth Century Journal Athens: Ohio Upwards, 12 (1979): 100.
• Coulton, G One thousand. "Art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Bulletin 11 (1928).
• Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market in Early Modern Antwerp. New Haven: Yale Upwards, 1998.
• Koerner, Joseph L. The Reformation of the Paradigm. London: The University of Chicago P, 2004.
• Knipping, John Baptist, Iconography of the Counter Reformation in the Netherlands: Heaven on World 2 vols, 1974
• Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Message 4 (1945).
• Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Marketplace. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
• Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000- [2] (October 2002).

External links [edit]

• Review of The Reformation of the Image by Joseph Leo Koerner, by Eamon Duffy, London Review of Books

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation

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